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3.2.1 anthromes (Klein Goldewijk et al. 2017; classes after Ellis & Ramankutty 2008)","licence":"CC0 (DANS) / CC BY 3.0 (readme)","note":"A model: historical population estimates allocated to the land by rules, at 5 arc minutes. Drawn at 10, where a cell shows as settled, village or cropland when any of its four source cells is; the shares are computed at 5 and carry no such emphasis."},"biome":{"steps":[-4050,-3050,-2050,-1050,-50,950,1950],"classes":[{"id":"none","label":"Water or no data","token":null},{"id":"tropical","label":"Tropical forest","token":"biome-tropical"},{"id":"temperate","label":"Temperate forest","token":"biome-temperate"},{"id":"boreal","label":"Boreal forest","token":"biome-boreal"},{"id":"woodland","label":"Savanna and dry woodland","token":"biome-woodland"},{"id":"grassland","label":"Grassland and steppe","token":"biome-grassland"},{"id":"shrubland","label":"Dry shrubland","token":"biome-shrubland"},{"id":"desert","label":"Desert and barren","token":"biome-desert"},{"id":"tundra","label":"Tundra","token":"biome-tundra"},{"id":"ice","label":"Land ice","token":"biome-ice"}],"size":1024,"source":"Beyer, Krapp & Manica 2020 (HadCM3 emulator and BIOME4)","licence":"CC BY 4.0","note":"A model of what the climate of each millennium supported, before people changed it: 0.5 degrees, every 1,000 years, 60°S to 90°N."},"rain":{"steps":[-4050,-3050,-2050,-1050,-50,950,1950],"size":1024,"floor":50.0,"encoding":"value 0 = no data; v in 1..255 = log2 ratio (v - 128) / 127 to the model’s 1950, clipped to half and twice","source":"Beyer, Krapp & Manica 2020 (HadCM3 emulator and BIOME4)","licence":"CC BY 4.0","note":"Annual rainfall against the same model’s present (1950), not against a measurement."},"temperature":{"holocene":{"source":"Kaufman et al. 2020","baseline":"the 1900-2000 bin of the same 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(September–February)","series":[[995,-0.31],[1025,-0.19],[1055,-0.31],[1085,-0.24],[1115,-0.19],[1145,-0.16],[1175,-0.17],[1205,-0.27],[1235,-0.12],[1265,-0.17],[1295,-0.24],[1325,-0.18],[1355,-0.18],[1385,-0.23],[1415,-0.21],[1445,-0.25],[1475,-0.26],[1505,-0.25],[1535,-0.35],[1565,-0.4],[1595,-0.35],[1625,-0.38],[1655,-0.41],[1685,-0.43],[1715,-0.37],[1745,-0.34],[1775,-0.39],[1805,-0.37],[1835,-0.45],[1865,-0.33],[1895,-0.39],[1925,-0.35],[1955,-0.22],[1985,0.09]]},{"id":"antarctica","label":"Antarctica","season":"annual","series":[[155,0.23],[185,0.24],[215,0.56],[245,0.29],[275,0.23],[305,0.38],[335,0.43],[365,0.33],[395,0.4],[425,0.53],[455,0.66],[485,0.44],[515,0.57],[545,0.59],[575,0.3],[605,0.68],[635,0.21],[665,0.51],[695,0.46],[725,0.5],[755,0.48],[785,0.59],[815,0.53],[845,0.35],[875,0.38],[905,0.53],[935,0.57],[965,0.38],[995,0.24],[1025,0.47],[1055,0.38],[1085,0.19],[1115,0.24],[1145,0.33],[1175,0.25],[1205,0.32],[1235,0.18],[1265,-0.09],[1295,0.01],[1325,0.21],[1355,0.2],[1385,0.18],[1415,0.17],[1445,0.03],[1475,0.16],[1505,0.12],[1535,0.13],[1565,0.21],[1595,0.09],[1625,0.07],[1655,0.18],[1685,0.25],[1715,0.15],[1745,-0.04],[1775,0.07],[1805,0.07],[1835,0.17],[1865,-0.07],[1895,0.01],[1925,0.16],[1955,-0.11],[1985,0.17]]}]}},"episodes":[{"id":"4.2ka","name":"The 4.2 kiloyear event","from":-2200,"to":-1900,"kind":"drought","where":"the Near East, Egypt and the Indus, and records as far as China","says":"A multi-century drying recorded in lake, cave and marine cores across the subtropics, now the boundary between the Middle and Late Holocene. It has been argued to have brought down the Akkadian Empire and strained Old Kingdom Egypt and the Harappan cities; how much it explains is contested.","works":[{"author":"Weiss, H. et al.","year":1993,"title":"The genesis and collapse of third millennium north Mesopotamian civilization","where":"Science 261","stance":"for"},{"author":"Walker, M. et al.","year":2018,"title":"Formal ratification of the subdivision of the Holocene Series/Epoch","where":"Episodes 41","stance":"measuring"},{"author":"Butzer, K. W.","year":2012,"title":"Collapse, environment, and society","where":"PNAS 109","stance":"against"}]},{"id":"3.2ka","name":"The Late Bronze Age drought","from":-1250,"to":-1100,"kind":"drought","where":"the eastern Mediterranean and the Levant","says":"Pollen from Cyprus and the Sea of Galilee records a drier eastern Mediterranean as the palace economies of the Late Bronze Age fell. The works argue drought as one strand of a systemic collapse, not its single cause.","works":[{"author":"Kaniewski, D. et al.","year":2013,"title":"Environmental roots of the Late Bronze Age crisis","where":"PLoS ONE 8","stance":"for"},{"author":"Langgut, D., Finkelstein, I. & Litt, T.","year":2013,"title":"Climate and the Late Bronze collapse: new evidence from the southern Levant","where":"Tel Aviv 40","stance":"for"},{"author":"Cline, E. H.","year":2014,"title":"1177 B.C.: The Year Civilization Collapsed","where":"Princeton University Press","stance":"measuring"}]},{"id":"rco","name":"The Roman Climate Optimum","from":-200,"to":150,"kind":"warm","where":"the Mediterranean and western Europe","says":"Warm, wet and stable centuries across the Mediterranean while Rome grew to its height; the works read the climate as a condition the empire flourished under, and its end as one strain on it later.","works":[{"author":"McCormick, M. et al.","year":2012,"title":"Climate change during and after the Roman Empire: reconstructing the past from scientific and historical evidence","where":"Journal of Interdisciplinary History 43","stance":"for"},{"author":"Harper, K.","year":2017,"title":"The Fate of Rome: Climate, Disease, and the End of an Empire","where":"Princeton University Press","stance":"for"}]},{"id":"lalia","name":"The Late Antique Little Ice Age","from":536,"to":660,"kind":"cold","where":"Europe and Central Asia, from tree rings in the Alps and the Altai","says":"Two volcanic eruptions, in 536 and 540, opened more than a century of cold summers. The authors connect it to the Justinianic plague, the migrations from the steppe and the rise and fall of states across Eurasia.","works":[{"author":"Büntgen, U. et al.","year":2016,"title":"Cooling and societal change during the Late Antique Little Ice Age from 536 to around 660 AD","where":"Nature Geoscience 9","stance":"for"}]},{"id":"mca","name":"The Medieval Climate Anomaly","from":950,"to":1250,"kind":"warm","where":"the North Atlantic and Europe; elsewhere the pattern differs","says":"Warmth around the North Atlantic, when Norse farms stood in Greenland, and long droughts in western North America. It was regional, not a global warm period, which is why the name changed from the Medieval Warm Period.","works":[{"author":"Lamb, H. H.","year":1965,"title":"The early medieval warm epoch and its sequel","where":"Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology 1","stance":"for"},{"author":"Mann, M. E. et al.","year":2009,"title":"Global signatures and dynamical origins of the Little Ice Age and Medieval Climate Anomaly","where":"Science 326","stance":"measuring"}]},{"id":"lia","name":"The Little Ice Age","from":1300,"to":1850,"kind":"cold","where":"most strongly the Northern Hemisphere; its onset and coldest decades differ by region","says":"Centuries of advancing glaciers and cold decades, coldest in the seventeenth century, when the works argue that failed harvests fed a global wave of revolts, wars and famines. A cooler world rather than an ice age: half a degree to a degree below the twentieth century in the northern reconstructions.","works":[{"author":"Grove, J. M.","year":1988,"title":"The Little Ice Age","where":"Methuen","stance":"for"},{"author":"PAGES 2k Consortium","year":2013,"title":"Continental-scale temperature variability during the past two millennia","where":"Nature Geoscience 6","stance":"measuring"},{"author":"Parker, G.","year":2013,"title":"Global Crisis: War, Climate Change and Catastrophe in the Seventeenth Century","where":"Yale University Press","stance":"for"}]},{"id":"maunder","name":"The Maunder Minimum","from":1645,"to":1715,"kind":"cold","where":"a minimum of sunspots, seen worldwide; the coldest decades of the Little Ice Age in Europe fall within it","says":"Seventy years in which observers recorded almost no sunspots. The works link it to the coldest European winters of the Little Ice Age; how much it cooled the climate, against volcanoes, is still argued.","works":[{"author":"Eddy, J. A.","year":1976,"title":"The Maunder Minimum","where":"Science 192","stance":"for"},{"author":"Owens, M. J. et al.","year":2017,"title":"The Maunder minimum and the Little Ice Age: an update from recent reconstructions and climate simulations","where":"Journal of Space Weather and Space Climate 7","stance":"measuring"}]}],"cradles":[{"id":"fertile-crescent","name":"The Fertile Crescent","lat":36.5,"lon":40.0,"from":-9500,"to":-8000,"crops":["einkorn and emmer wheat","barley","lentil","pea","chickpea","bitter vetch","flax"],"animals":["goat","sheep","cattle","pig"],"says":"The arc of hills and river valleys from the Levant to the Zagros, where wild wheat, barley and the ancestors of the flock animals all grew within walking distance. It is why the first villages, then the first cities of Sumer, stood where they did: the farming that fed them began here and spread to Egypt, Europe and South Asia.","works":[{"author":"Zeder, M. A.","year":2011,"title":"The origins of agriculture in the Near East","where":"Current Anthropology 52","stance":"for"},{"author":"Larson, G. et al.","year":2014,"title":"Current perspectives and the future of domestication studies","where":"PNAS 111","stance":"for"}]},{"id":"yellow-river","name":"The Yellow River valley","lat":35.5,"lon":112.0,"from":-8000,"to":-5500,"crops":["broomcorn millet","foxtail millet"],"animals":["pig"],"says":"Millet farming on the loess of northern China, the base of the Yangshao and later cultures out of which the first Chinese states grew.","works":[{"author":"Lu, H. et al.","year":2009,"title":"Earliest domestication of common millet (Panicum miliaceum) in East Asia extended to 10,000 years ago","where":"PNAS 106","stance":"for"},{"author":"Larson, G. et al.","year":2014,"title":"Current perspectives and the future of domestication studies","where":"PNAS 111","stance":"for"}]},{"id":"yangtze","name":"The lower Yangtze","lat":30.0,"lon":120.5,"from":-7000,"to":-4500,"crops":["rice"],"animals":[],"says":"Rice taken from the wild in the wetlands of the lower Yangtze, a slow change over two millennia that the spikelet bases at Tianluoshan record.","works":[{"author":"Fuller, D. Q. et al.","year":2009,"title":"The domestication process and domestication rate in rice: spikelet bases from the Lower Yangtze","where":"Science 323","stance":"for"}]},{"id":"new-guinea","name":"The New Guinea Highlands","lat":-5.78,"lon":144.33,"from":-8000,"to":-4500,"crops":["taro","banana","yam"],"animals":[],"says":"Drained and mounded plots at Kuk Swamp show people cultivating taro and bananas in the highlands independently of anywhere else.","works":[{"author":"Denham, T. P. et al.","year":2003,"title":"Origins of agriculture at Kuk Swamp in the Highlands of New Guinea","where":"Science 301","stance":"for"}]},{"id":"mesoamerica","name":"Mesoamerica","lat":18.3,"lon":-100.0,"from":-8000,"to":-4000,"crops":["squash","maize","beans","chili pepper"],"animals":["turkey (much later)"],"says":"Squash in the caves of Oaxaca and maize from the Balsas valley's wild teosinte: the crops that fed the Olmec, the Maya and the Aztecs.","works":[{"author":"Smith, B. D.","year":1997,"title":"The initial domestication of Cucurbita pepo in the Americas 10,000 years ago","where":"Science 276","stance":"for"},{"author":"Piperno, D. R. et al.","year":2009,"title":"Starch grain and phytolith evidence for early ninth millennium B.P. maize from the Central Balsas River Valley, Mexico","where":"PNAS 106","stance":"for"}]},{"id":"andes","name":"The Andes and western Amazonia","lat":-13.5,"lon":-72.0,"from":-8000,"to":-3000,"crops":["potato","quinoa","manioc","squash","peanut","cotton"],"animals":["llama","alpaca","guinea pig"],"says":"Crops of the highlands and of the tropical lowlands to their east, and the only large animals domesticated in the Americas: the base of every Andean state from Caral to the Inca.","works":[{"author":"Piperno, D. R.","year":2011,"title":"The origins of plant cultivation and domestication in the New World tropics","where":"Current Anthropology 52","stance":"for"},{"author":"Larson, G. et al.","year":2014,"title":"Current perspectives and the future of domestication studies","where":"PNAS 111","stance":"for"}]},{"id":"eastern-north-america","name":"Eastern North America","lat":36.5,"lon":-87.0,"from":-3000,"to":-1800,"crops":["squash","sunflower","marsh elder","goosefoot"],"animals":[],"says":"A set of seed crops domesticated in the river valleys of the east, long before maize arrived from Mexico.","works":[{"author":"Smith, B. D.","year":2006,"title":"Eastern North America as an independent center of plant domestication","where":"PNAS 103","stance":"for"}]},{"id":"sahel","name":"The Sahel","lat":17.5,"lon":0.5,"from":-3000,"to":-2000,"crops":["pearl millet","sorghum"],"animals":[],"says":"Pearl millet in the Tilemsi valley and sorghum further east, domesticated as the Sahara dried and herders moved south: the cereals of the Sahelian kingdoms.","works":[{"author":"Manning, K. et al.","year":2011,"title":"4500-year old domesticated pearl millet (Pennisetum glaucum) from the Tilemsi Valley, Mali","where":"Journal of Archaeological Science 38","stance":"for"},{"author":"Fuller, D. Q. & Hildebrand, E.","year":2013,"title":"Domesticating plants in Africa","where":"The Oxford Handbook of African Archaeology","stance":"for"}]},{"id":"west-africa","name":"West Africa","lat":13.5,"lon":-4.5,"from":-1500,"to":-500,"crops":["African rice","yam","oil palm","cowpea"],"animals":[],"says":"African rice in the inland delta of the Niger and yams and oil palm in the forest margins, dated mostly from indirect evidence.","works":[{"author":"Fuller, D. Q. & Hildebrand, E.","year":2013,"title":"Domesticating plants in Africa","where":"The Oxford Handbook of African Archaeology","stance":"for"}]},{"id":"ethiopia","name":"The Ethiopian Highlands","lat":9.5,"lon":38.5,"from":-3000,"to":-1000,"crops":["teff","enset","noog"],"animals":[],"says":"Crops found nowhere else in the wild, which is the evidence: the archaeological record of when they were first farmed is thin, and the window is an estimate.","works":[{"author":"Fuller, D. Q. & Hildebrand, E.","year":2013,"title":"Domesticating plants in Africa","where":"The Oxford Handbook of African Archaeology","stance":"for"}]},{"id":"south-asia","name":"South Asia","lat":24.0,"lon":82.0,"from":-3000,"to":-2000,"crops":["mung bean","horsegram","rice (with East Asian rice later)"],"animals":["zebu cattle"],"says":"Native pulses in the south and rice in the Ganges plain, with zebu cattle from the west of the subcontinent; the wheat and barley of the Indus cities came from the Fertile Crescent.","works":[{"author":"Fuller, D. Q.","year":2006,"title":"Agricultural origins and frontiers in South Asia: a working synthesis","where":"Journal of World Prehistory 20","stance":"for"}]}],"regions":["europe","mena","ssa","sasia","easia","amer","world"]}